8.3. collections — High-performance container datatypes

New in version 2.4.

Source code: Lib/collections.py and Lib/_abcoll.py

This module implements specialized container datatypes providing alternatives to Python’s general purpose built-in containers, dict, list, set, and tuple.

namedtuple()

factory function for creating tuple subclasses with named fields

New in version 2.6.

deque

list-like container with fast appends and pops on either end

New in version 2.4.

Counter

dict subclass for counting hashable objects

New in version 2.7.

OrderedDict

dict subclass that remembers the order entries were added

New in version 2.7.

defaultdict

dict subclass that calls a factory function to supply missing values

New in version 2.5.

In addition to the concrete container classes, the collections module provides abstract base classes that can be used to test whether a class provides a particular interface, for example, whether it is hashable or a mapping.

8.3.1. Counter objects

A counter tool is provided to support convenient and rapid tallies. For example:

>>> # Tally occurrences of words in a list
>>> cnt = Counter()
>>> for word in ['red', 'blue', 'red', 'green', 'blue', 'blue']:
...     cnt[word] += 1
>>> cnt
Counter({'blue': 3, 'red': 2, 'green': 1})

>>> # Find the ten most common words in Hamlet
>>> import re
>>> words = re.findall(r'\w+', open('hamlet.txt').read().lower())
>>> Counter(words).most_common(10)
[('the', 1143), ('and', 966), ('to', 762), ('of', 669), ('i', 631),
 ('you', 554),  ('a', 546), ('my', 514), ('hamlet', 471), ('in', 451)]
class collections.Counter([iterable-or-mapping])

A Counter is a dict subclass for counting hashable objects. It is an unordered collection where elements are stored as dictionary keys and their counts are stored as dictionary values. Counts are allowed to be any integer value including zero or negative counts. The Counter class is similar to bags or multisets in other languages.

Elements are counted from an iterable or initialized from another mapping (or counter):

>>> c = Counter()                           # a new, empty counter
>>> c = Counter('gallahad')                 # a new counter from an iterable
>>> c = Counter({'red': 4, 'blue': 2})      # a new counter from a mapping
>>> c = Counter(cats=4, dogs=8)             # a new counter from keyword args

Counter objects have a dictionary interface except that they return a zero count for missing items instead of raising a KeyError:

>>> c = Counter(['eggs', 'ham'])
>>> c['bacon']                              # count of a missing element is zero
0

Setting a count to zero does not remove an element from a counter. Use del to remove it entirely:

>>> c['sausage'] = 0                        # counter entry with a zero count
>>> del c['sausage']                        # del actually removes the entry

New in version 2.7.

Counter objects support three methods beyond those available for all dictionaries:

elements()

Return an iterator over elements repeating each as many times as its count. Elements are returned in arbitrary order. If an element’s count is less than one, elements() will ignore it.

>>> c = Counter(a=4, b=2, c=0, d=-2)
>>> list(c.elements())
['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'b', 'b']
most_common([n])

Return a list of the n most common elements and their counts from the most common to the least. If n is omitted or None, most_common() returns all elements in the counter. Elements with equal counts are ordered arbitrarily:

>>> Counter('abracadabra').most_common(3)
[('a', 5), ('r', 2), ('b', 2)]
subtract([iterable-or-mapping])

Elements are subtracted from an iterable or from another mapping (or counter). Like dict.update() but subtracts counts instead of replacing them. Both inputs and outputs may be zero or negative.

>>> c = Counter(a=4, b=2, c=0, d=-2)
>>> d = Counter(a=1, b=2, c=3, d=4)
>>> c.subtract(d)
>>> c
Counter({'a': 3, 'b': 0, 'c': -3, 'd': -6})

The usual dictionary methods are available for Counter objects except for two which work differently for counters.

fromkeys(iterable)

This class method is not implemented for Counter objects.

update([iterable-or-mapping])

Elements are counted from an iterable or added-in from another mapping (or counter). Like dict.update() but adds counts instead of replacing them. Also, the iterable is expected to be a sequence of elements, not a sequence of (key, value) pairs.

Common patterns for working with Counter objects:

sum(c.values())                 # total of all counts
c.clear()                       # reset all counts
list(c)                         # list unique elements
set(c)                          # convert to a set
dict(c)                         # convert to a regular dictionary
c.items()                       # convert to a list of (elem, cnt) pairs
Counter(dict(list_of_pairs))    # convert from a list of (elem, cnt) pairs
c.most_common()[:-n-1:-1]       # n least common elements
c += Counter()                  # remove zero and negative counts

Several mathematical operations are provided for combining Counter objects to produce multisets (counters that have counts greater than zero). Addition and subtraction combine counters by adding or subtracting the counts of corresponding elements. Intersection and union return the minimum and maximum of corresponding counts. Each operation can accept inputs with signed counts, but the output will exclude results with counts of zero or less.

>>> c = Counter(a=3, b=1)
>>> d = Counter(a=1, b=2)
>>> c + d                       # add two counters together:  c[x] + d[x]
Counter({'a': 4, 'b': 3})
>>> c - d                       # subtract (keeping only positive counts)
Counter({'a': 2})
>>> c & d                       # intersection:  min(c[x], d[x])
Counter({'a': 1, 'b': 1})
>>> c | d                       # union:  max(c[x], d[x])
Counter({'a': 3, 'b': 2})

Note

Counters were primarily designed to work with positive integers to represent running counts; however, care was taken to not unnecessarily preclude use cases needing other types or negative values. To help with those use cases, this section documents the minimum range and type restrictions.

  • The Counter class itself is a dictionary subclass with no restrictions on its keys and values. The values are intended to be numbers representing counts, but you could store anything in the value field.

  • The most_common() method requires only that the values be orderable.

  • For in-place operations such as c[key] += 1, the value type need only support addition and subtraction. So fractions, floats, and decimals would work and negative values are supported. The same is also true for update() and subtract() which allow negative and zero values for both inputs and outputs.

  • The multiset methods are designed only for use cases with positive values. The inputs may be negative or zero, but only outputs with positive values are created. There are no type restrictions, but the value type needs to support addition, subtraction, and comparison.

  • The elements() method requires integer counts. It ignores zero and negative counts.

See also

  • Counter class adapted for Python 2.5 and an early Bag recipe for Python 2.4.

  • Bag class in Smalltalk.

  • Wikipedia entry for Multisets.

  • C++ multisets tutorial with examples.

  • For mathematical operations on multisets and their use cases, see Knuth, Donald. The Art of Computer Programming Volume II, Section 4.6.3, Exercise 19.

  • To enumerate all distinct multisets of a given size over a given set of elements, see itertools.combinations_with_replacement().

    map(Counter, combinations_with_replacement(‘ABC’, 2)) –> AA AB AC BB BC CC

8.3.2. deque objects

class collections.deque([iterable[, maxlen]])

Returns a new deque object initialized left-to-right (using append()) with data from iterable. If iterable is not specified, the new deque is empty.

Deques are a generalization of stacks and queues (the name is pronounced “deck” and is short for “double-ended queue”). Deques support thread-safe, memory efficient appends and pops from either side of the deque with approximately the same O(1) performance in either direction.

Though list objects support similar operations, they are optimized for fast fixed-length operations and incur O(n) memory movement costs for pop(0) and insert(0, v) operations which change both the size and position of the underlying data representation.

New in version 2.4.

If maxlen is not specified or is None, deques may grow to an arbitrary length. Otherwise, the deque is bounded to the specified maximum length. Once a bounded length deque is full, when new items are added, a corresponding number of items are discarded from the opposite end. Bounded length deques provide functionality similar to the tail filter in Unix. They are also useful for tracking transactions and other pools of data where only the most recent activity is of interest.

Changed in version 2.6: Added maxlen parameter.

Deque objects support the following methods:

append(x)

Add x to the right side of the deque.

appendleft(x)

Add x to the left side of the deque.

clear()

Remove all elements from the deque leaving it with length 0.

count(x)

Count the number of deque elements equal to x.

New in version 2.7.

extend(iterable)

Extend the right side of the deque by appending elements from the iterable argument.

extendleft(iterable)

Extend the left side of the deque by appending elements from iterable. Note, the series of left appends results in reversing the order of elements in the iterable argument.

pop()

Remove and return an element from the right side of the deque. If no elements are present, raises an IndexError.

popleft()

Remove and return an element from the left side of the deque. If no elements are present, raises an IndexError.

remove(value)

Remove the first occurrence of value. If not found, raises a ValueError.

New in version 2.5.

reverse()

Reverse the elements of the deque in-place and then return None.

New in version 2.7.

rotate(n=1)

Rotate the deque n steps to the right. If n is negative, rotate to the left.

When the deque is not empty, rotating one step to the right is equivalent to d.appendleft(d.pop()), and rotating one step to the left is equivalent to d.append(d.popleft()).

Deque objects also provide one read-only attribute:

maxlen

Maximum size of a deque or None if unbounded.

New in version 2.7.

In addition to the above, deques support iteration, pickling, len(d), reversed(d), copy.copy(d), copy.deepcopy(d), membership testing with the in operator, and subscript references such as d[-1]. Indexed access is O(1) at both ends but slows to O(n) in the middle. For fast random access, use lists instead.

Example:

>>> from collections import deque
>>> d = deque('ghi')                 # make a new deque with three items
>>> for elem in d:                   # iterate over the deque's elements
...     print elem.upper()
G
H
I

>>> d.append('j')                    # add a new entry to the right side
>>> d.appendleft('f')                # add a new entry to the left side
>>> d                                # show the representation of the deque
deque(['f', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j'])

>>> d.pop()                          # return and remove the rightmost item
'j'
>>> d.popleft()                      # return and remove the leftmost item
'f'
>>> list(d)                          # list the contents of the deque
['g', 'h', 'i']
>>> d[0]                             # peek at leftmost item
'g'
>>> d[-1]                            # peek at rightmost item
'i'

>>> list(reversed(d))                # list the contents of a deque in reverse
['i', 'h', 'g']
>>> 'h' in d                         # search the deque
True
>>> d.extend('jkl')                  # add multiple elements at once
>>> d
deque(['g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k', 'l'])
>>> d.rotate(1)                      # right rotation
>>> d
deque(['l', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k'])
>>> d.rotate(-1)                     # left rotation
>>> d
deque(['g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k', 'l'])

>>> deque(reversed(d))               # make a new deque in reverse order
deque(['l', 'k', 'j', 'i', 'h', 'g'])
>>> d.clear()                        # empty the deque
>>> d.pop()                          # cannot pop from an empty deque
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<pyshell#6>", line 1, in -toplevel-
    d.pop()
IndexError: pop from an empty deque

>>> d.extendleft('abc')              # extendleft() reverses the input order
>>> d
deque(['c', 'b', 'a'])

8.3.2.1. deque Recipes

This section shows various approaches to working with deques.

Bounded length deques provide functionality similar to the tail filter in Unix:

def tail(filename, n=10):
    'Return the last n lines of a file'
    return deque(open(filename), n)

Another approach to using deques is to maintain a sequence of recently added elements by appending to the right and popping to the left:

def moving_average(iterable, n=3):
    # moving_average([40, 30, 50, 46, 39, 44]) --> 40.0 42.0 45.0 43.0
    # http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_average
    it = iter(iterable)
    d = deque(itertools.islice(it, n-1))
    d.appendleft(0)
    s = sum(d)
    for elem in it:
        s += elem - d.popleft()
        d.append(elem)
        yield s / float(n)

The rotate() method provides a way to implement deque slicing and deletion. For example, a pure Python implementation of del d[n] relies on the rotate() method to position elements to be popped:

def delete_nth(d, n):
    d.rotate(-n)
    d.popleft()
    d.rotate(n)

To implement deque slicing, use a similar approach applying rotate() to bring a target element to the left side of the deque. Remove old entries with popleft(), add new entries with extend(), and then reverse the rotation. With minor variations on that approach, it is easy to implement Forth style stack manipulations such as dup, drop, swap, over, pick, rot, and roll.

8.3.3. defaultdict objects

class collections.defaultdict([default_factory[, ...]])

Returns a new dictionary-like object. defaultdict is a subclass of the built-in dict class. It overrides one method and adds one writable instance variable. The remaining functionality is the same as for the dict class and is not documented here.

The first argument provides the initial value for the default_factory attribute; it defaults to None. All remaining arguments are treated the same as if they were passed to the dict constructor, including keyword arguments.

New in version 2.5.

defaultdict objects support the following method in addition to the standard dict operations:

__missing__(key)

If the default_factory attribute is None, this raises a KeyError exception with the key as argument.

If default_factory is not None, it is called without arguments to provide a default value for the given key, this value is inserted in the dictionary for the key, and returned.

If calling default_factory raises an exception this exception is propagated unchanged.

This method is called by the __getitem__() method of the dict class when the requested key is not found; whatever it returns or raises is then returned or raised by __getitem__().

Note that __missing__() is not called for any operations besides __getitem__(). This means that get() will, like normal dictionaries, return None as a default rather than using default_factory.

defaultdict objects support the following instance variable:

default_factory

This attribute is used by the __missing__() method; it is initialized from the first argument to the constructor, if present, or to None, if absent.

8.3.3.1. defaultdict Examples

Using list as the default_factory, it is easy to group a sequence of key-value pairs into a dictionary of lists:

>>> s = [('yellow', 1), ('blue', 2), ('yellow', 3), ('blue', 4), ('red', 1)]
>>> d = defaultdict(list)
>>> for k, v in s:
...     d[k].append(v)
...
>>> d.items()
[('blue', [2, 4]), ('red', [1]), ('yellow', [1, 3])]

When each key is encountered for the first time, it is not already in the mapping; so an entry is automatically created using the default_factory function which returns an empty list. The list.append() operation then attaches the value to the new list. When keys are encountered again, the look-up proceeds normally (returning the list for that key) and the list.append() operation adds another value to the list. This technique is simpler and faster than an equivalent technique using dict.setdefault():

>>> d = {}
>>> for k, v in s:
...     d.setdefault(k, []).append(v)
...
>>> d.items()
[('blue', [2, 4]), ('red', [1]), ('yellow', [1, 3])]

Setting the default_factory to int makes the defaultdict useful for counting (like a bag or multiset in other languages):

>>> s = 'mississippi'
>>> d = defaultdict(int)
>>> for k in s:
...     d[k] += 1
...
>>> d.items()
[('i', 4), ('p', 2), ('s', 4), ('m', 1)]

When a letter is first encountered, it is missing from the mapping, so the default_factory function calls int() to supply a default count of zero. The increment operation then builds up the count for each letter.

The function int() which always returns zero is just a special case of constant functions. A faster and more flexible way to create constant functions is to use itertools.repeat() which can supply any constant value (not just zero):

>>> def constant_factory(value):
...     return itertools.repeat(value).next
>>> d = defaultdict(constant_factory('<missing>'))
>>> d.update(name='John', action='ran')
>>> '%(name)s %(action)s to %(object)s' % d
'John ran to <missing>'

Setting the default_factory to set makes the defaultdict useful for building a dictionary of sets:

>>> s = [('red', 1), ('blue', 2), ('red', 3), ('blue', 4), ('red', 1), ('blue', 4)]
>>> d = defaultdict(set)
>>> for k, v in s:
...     d[k].add(v)
...
>>> d.items()
[('blue', set([2, 4])), ('red', set([1, 3]))]

8.3.4. namedtuple() Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields

Named tuples assign meaning to each position in a tuple and allow for more readable, self-documenting code. They can be used wherever regular tuples are used, and they add the ability to access fields by name instead of position index.

collections.namedtuple(typename, field_names[, verbose=False][, rename=False])

Returns a new tuple subclass named typename. The new subclass is used to create tuple-like objects that have fields accessible by attribute lookup as well as being indexable and iterable. Instances of the subclass also have a helpful docstring (with typename and field_names) and a helpful __repr__() method which lists the tuple contents in a name=value format.

The field_names are a sequence of strings such as ['x', 'y']. Alternatively, field_names can be a single string with each fieldname separated by whitespace and/or commas, for example 'x y' or 'x, y'.

Any valid Python identifier may be used for a fieldname except for names starting with an underscore. Valid identifiers consist of letters, digits, and underscores but do not start with a digit or underscore and cannot be a keyword such as class, for, return, global, pass, print, or raise.

If rename is true, invalid fieldnames are automatically replaced with positional names. For example, ['abc', 'def', 'ghi', 'abc'] is converted to ['abc', '_1', 'ghi', '_3'], eliminating the keyword def and the duplicate fieldname abc.

If verbose is true, the class definition is printed just before being built.

Named tuple instances do not have per-instance dictionaries, so they are lightweight and require no more memory than regular tuples.

New in version 2.6.

Changed in version 2.7: added support for rename.

Example:

>>> Point = namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'], verbose=True)
class Point(tuple):
    'Point(x, y)'

    __slots__ = ()

    _fields = ('x', 'y')

    def __new__(_cls, x, y):
        'Create new instance of Point(x, y)'
        return _tuple.__new__(_cls, (x, y))

    @classmethod
    def _make(cls, iterable, new=tuple.__new__, len=len):
        'Make a new Point object from a sequence or iterable'
        result = new(cls, iterable)
        if len(result) != 2:
            raise TypeError('Expected 2 arguments, got %d' % len(result))
        return result

    def __repr__(self):
        'Return a nicely formatted representation string'
        return 'Point(x=%r, y=%r)' % self

    def _asdict(self):
        'Return a new OrderedDict which maps field names to their values'
        return OrderedDict(zip(self._fields, self))

    def _replace(_self, **kwds):
        'Return a new Point object replacing specified fields with new values'
        result = _self._make(map(kwds.pop, ('x', 'y'), _self))
        if kwds:
            raise ValueError('Got unexpected field names: %r' % kwds.keys())
        return result

    def __getnewargs__(self):
        'Return self as a plain tuple.  Used by copy and pickle.'
        return tuple(self)

    __dict__ = _property(_asdict)

    def __getstate__(self):
        'Exclude the OrderedDict from pickling'
        pass

    x = _property(_itemgetter(0), doc='Alias for field number 0')

    y = _property(_itemgetter(1), doc='Alias for field number 1')



>>> p = Point(11, y=22)     # instantiate with positional or keyword arguments
>>> p[0] + p[1]             # indexable like the plain tuple (11, 22)
33
>>> x, y = p                # unpack like a regular tuple
>>> x, y
(11, 22)
>>> p.x + p.y               # fields also accessible by name
33
>>> p                       # readable __repr__ with a name=value style
Point(x=11, y=22)

Named tuples are especially useful for assigning field names to result tuples returned by the csv or sqlite3 modules:

EmployeeRecord = namedtuple('EmployeeRecord', 'name, age, title, department, paygrade')

import csv
for emp in map(EmployeeRecord._make, csv.reader(open("employees.csv", "rb"))):
    print emp.name, emp.title

import sqlite3
conn = sqlite3.connect('/companydata')
cursor = conn.cursor()
cursor.execute('SELECT name, age, title, department, paygrade FROM employees')
for emp in map(EmployeeRecord._make, cursor.fetchall()):
    print emp.name, emp.title

In addition to the methods inherited from tuples, named tuples support three additional methods and one attribute. To prevent conflicts with field names, the method and attribute names start with an underscore.

classmethod somenamedtuple._make(iterable)

Class method that makes a new instance from an existing sequence or iterable.

>>> t = [11, 22]
>>> Point._make(t)
Point(x=11, y=22)
somenamedtuple._asdict()

Return a new OrderedDict which maps field names to their corresponding values:

>>> p = Point(x=11, y=22)
>>> p._asdict()
OrderedDict([('x', 11), ('y', 22)])

Changed in version 2.7: Returns an OrderedDict instead of a regular dict.

somenamedtuple._replace(**kwargs)

Return a new instance of the named tuple replacing specified fields with new values:

>>> p = Point(x=11, y=22)
>>> p._replace(x=33)
Point(x=33, y=22)

>>> for partnum, record in inventory.items():
...     inventory[partnum] = record._replace(price=newprices[partnum], timestamp=time.now())
somenamedtuple._fields

Tuple of strings listing the field names. Useful for introspection and for creating new named tuple types from existing named tuples.

>>> p._fields            # view the field names
('x', 'y')

>>> Color = namedtuple('Color', 'red green blue')
>>> Pixel = namedtuple('Pixel', Point._fields + Color._fields)
>>> Pixel(11, 22, 128, 255, 0)
Pixel(x=11, y=22, red=128, green=255, blue=0)

To retrieve a field whose name is stored in a string, use the getattr() function:

>>> getattr(p, 'x')
11

To convert a dictionary to a named tuple, use the double-star-operator (as described in Unpacking Argument Lists):

>>> d = {'x': 11, 'y': 22}
>>> Point(**d)
Point(x=11, y=22)

Since a named tuple is a regular Python class, it is easy to add or change functionality with a subclass. Here is how to add a calculated field and a fixed-width print format:

>>> class Point(namedtuple('Point', 'x y')):
...     __slots__ = ()
...     @property
...     def hypot(self):
...         return (self.x ** 2 + self.y ** 2) ** 0.5
...     def __str__(self):
...         return 'Point: x=%6.3f  y=%6.3f  hypot=%6.3f' % (self.x, self.y, self.hypot)
...
>>> for p in Point(3, 4), Point(14, 5/7.):
...     print p
Point: x= 3.000  y= 4.000  hypot= 5.000
Point: x=14.000  y= 0.714  hypot=14.018

The subclass shown above sets __slots__ to an empty tuple. This helps keep memory requirements low by preventing the creation of instance dictionaries.

Subclassing is not useful for adding new, stored fields. Instead, simply create a new named tuple type from the _fields attribute:

>>> Point3D = namedtuple('Point3D', Point._fields + ('z',))

Default values can be implemented by using _replace() to customize a prototype instance:

>>> Account = namedtuple('Account', 'owner balance transaction_count')
>>> default_account = Account('<owner name>', 0.0, 0)
>>> johns_account = default_account._replace(owner='John')

Enumerated constants can be implemented with named tuples, but it is simpler and more efficient to use a simple class declaration:

>>> Status = namedtuple('Status', 'open pending closed')._make(range(3))
>>> Status.open, Status.pending, Status.closed
(0, 1, 2)
>>> class Status:
...     open, pending, closed = range(3)

See also

Named tuple recipe adapted for Python 2.4.

8.3.5. OrderedDict objects

Ordered dictionaries are just like regular dictionaries but they remember the order that items were inserted. When iterating over an ordered dictionary, the items are returned in the order their keys were first added.

class collections.OrderedDict([items])

Return an instance of a dict subclass, supporting the usual dict methods. An OrderedDict is a dict that remembers the order that keys were first inserted. If a new entry overwrites an existing entry, the original insertion position is left unchanged. Deleting an entry and reinserting it will move it to the end.

New in version 2.7.

OrderedDict.popitem(last=True)

The popitem() method for ordered dictionaries returns and removes a (key, value) pair. The pairs are returned in LIFO order if last is true or FIFO order if false.

In addition to the usual mapping methods, ordered dictionaries also support reverse iteration using reversed().

Equality tests between OrderedDict objects are order-sensitive and are implemented as list(od1.items())==list(od2.items()). Equality tests between OrderedDict objects and other Mapping objects are order-insensitive like regular dictionaries. This allows OrderedDict objects to be substituted anywhere a regular dictionary is used.

The OrderedDict constructor and update() method both accept keyword arguments, but their order is lost because Python’s function call semantics pass-in keyword arguments using a regular unordered dictionary.

See also

Equivalent OrderedDict recipe that runs on Python 2.4 or later.

8.3.5.1. OrderedDict Examples and Recipes

Since an ordered dictionary remembers its insertion order, it can be used in conjunction with sorting to make a sorted dictionary:

>>> # regular unsorted dictionary
>>> d = {'banana': 3, 'apple': 4, 'pear': 1, 'orange': 2}

>>> # dictionary sorted by key
>>> OrderedDict(sorted(d.items(), key=lambda t: t[0]))
OrderedDict([('apple', 4), ('banana', 3), ('orange', 2), ('pear', 1)])

>>> # dictionary sorted by value
>>> OrderedDict(sorted(d.items(), key=lambda t: t[1]))
OrderedDict([('pear', 1), ('orange', 2), ('banana', 3), ('apple', 4)])

>>> # dictionary sorted by length of the key string
>>> OrderedDict(sorted(d.items(), key=lambda t: len(t[0])))
OrderedDict([('pear', 1), ('apple', 4), ('orange', 2), ('banana', 3)])

The new sorted dictionaries maintain their sort order when entries are deleted. But when new keys are added, the keys are appended to the end and the sort is not maintained.

It is also straight-forward to create an ordered dictionary variant that remembers the order the keys were last inserted. If a new entry overwrites an existing entry, the original insertion position is changed and moved to the end:

class LastUpdatedOrderedDict(OrderedDict):
    'Store items in the order the keys were last added'

    def __setitem__(self, key, value):
        if key in self:
            del self[key]
        OrderedDict.__setitem__(self, key, value)

An ordered dictionary can be combined with the Counter class so that the counter remembers the order elements are first encountered:

class OrderedCounter(Counter, OrderedDict):
     'Counter that remembers the order elements are first encountered'

     def __repr__(self):
         return '%s(%r)' % (self.__class__.__name__, OrderedDict(self))

     def __reduce__(self):
         return self.__class__, (OrderedDict(self),)

8.3.6. Collections Abstract Base Classes

The collections module offers the following ABCs:

ABC

Inherits from

Abstract Methods

Mixin Methods

Container

__contains__

Hashable

__hash__

Iterable

__iter__

Iterator

Iterable

next

__iter__

Sized

__len__

Callable

__call__

Sequence

Sized, Iterable, Container

__getitem__, __len__

__contains__, __iter__, __reversed__, index, and count

MutableSequence

Sequence

__getitem__, __setitem__, __delitem__, __len__, insert

Inherited Sequence methods and append, reverse, extend, pop, remove, and __iadd__

Set

Sized, Iterable, Container

__contains__, __iter__, __len__

__le__, __lt__, __eq__, __ne__, __gt__, __ge__, __and__, __or__, __sub__, __xor__, and isdisjoint

MutableSet

Set

__contains__, __iter__, __len__, add, discard

Inherited Set methods and clear, pop, remove, __ior__, __iand__, __ixor__, and __isub__

Mapping

Sized, Iterable, Container

__getitem__, __iter__, __len__

__contains__, keys, items, values, get, __eq__, and __ne__

MutableMapping

Mapping

__getitem__, __setitem__, __delitem__, __iter__, __len__

Inherited Mapping methods and pop, popitem, clear, update, and setdefault

MappingView

Sized

__len__

ItemsView

MappingView, Set

__contains__, __iter__

KeysView

MappingView, Set

__contains__, __iter__

ValuesView

MappingView

__contains__, __iter__
class collections.Container
class collections.Hashable
class collections.Sized
class collections.Callable

ABCs for classes that provide respectively the methods __contains__(), __hash__(), __len__(), and __call__().

class collections.Iterable

ABC for classes that provide the __iter__() method. See also the definition of iterable.

class collections.Iterator

ABC for classes that provide the __iter__() and next() methods. See also the definition of iterator.

class collections.Sequence
class collections.MutableSequence

ABCs for read-only and mutable sequences.

class collections.Set
class collections.MutableSet

ABCs for read-only and mutable sets.

class collections.Mapping
class collections.MutableMapping

ABCs for read-only and mutable mappings.

class collections.MappingView
class collections.ItemsView
class collections.KeysView
class collections.ValuesView

ABCs for mapping, items, keys, and values views.

These ABCs allow us to ask classes or instances if they provide particular functionality, for example:

size = None
if isinstance(myvar, collections.Sized):
    size = len(myvar)

Several of the ABCs are also useful as mixins that make it easier to develop classes supporting container APIs. For example, to write a class supporting the full Set API, it only necessary to supply the three underlying abstract methods: __contains__(), __iter__(), and __len__(). The ABC supplies the remaining methods such as __and__() and isdisjoint()

class ListBasedSet(collections.Set):
     ''' Alternate set implementation favoring space over speed
         and not requiring the set elements to be hashable. '''
     def __init__(self, iterable):
         self.elements = lst = []
         for value in iterable:
             if value not in lst:
                 lst.append(value)

     def __iter__(self):
         return iter(self.elements)

     def __contains__(self, value):
         return value in self.elements

     def __len__(self):
         return len(self.elements)

s1 = ListBasedSet('abcdef')
s2 = ListBasedSet('defghi')
overlap = s1 & s2            # The __and__() method is supported automatically

Notes on using Set and MutableSet as a mixin:

  1. Since some set operations create new sets, the default mixin methods need a way to create new instances from an iterable. The class constructor is assumed to have a signature in the form ClassName(iterable). That assumption is factored-out to an internal classmethod called _from_iterable() which calls cls(iterable) to produce a new set. If the Set mixin is being used in a class with a different constructor signature, you will need to override _from_iterable() with a classmethod that can construct new instances from an iterable argument.

  2. To override the comparisons (presumably for speed, as the semantics are fixed), redefine __le__() and __ge__(), then the other operations will automatically follow suit.

  3. The Set mixin provides a _hash() method to compute a hash value for the set; however, __hash__() is not defined because not all sets are hashable or immutable. To add set hashability using mixins, inherit from both Set() and Hashable(), then define __hash__ = Set._hash.

See also